Understand what data structures actually are, problem-solving methodologies, formal asymptotic analysis, and recursion call stack physics.
Distinguish raw data from semantic information, primitive vs composite memory representations, and ADTs vs concrete structures.
Polya's 4-step framework, constraint analysis, input scale implications, edge-case checklists, and systematic optimization.
Formal limits for Big-O, Big-Omega, Big-Theta, Little-o/omega, amortized analysis (accounting & potential methods), and space complexity.
Stack frame anatomy, base case invariants, recursion trees, Master Theorem (all 3 cases), and Akra-Bazzi intuition.